# nLab binomial theorem

Contents

### Context

#### Combinatorics

combinatorics

enumerative combinatorics

graph theory

rewriting

### Polytopes

edit this sidebar

category: combinatorics

# Contents

## Statement

For $k$ a natural number and $r$ a complex number, define the falling factorial by

$r^{\underline{k}} = r(r-1)\ldots (r-k+1),$

a polynomial of degree $k$ evaluated at $r$. If $r$ is a natural number, this expression vanishes for $k \gt r$.

The binomial theorem may be stated thus: if $r$ is any complex number and ${|x|} \lt 1$, then

$(1 + x)^r = \sum_{k \geq 0} \frac{r^{\underline{k}} x^k}{k!}$

where the left side may be formally defined as $\exp(r \cdot \log (1+x))$, taking the principal branch of the logarithm as defined by the power series

$\log(1 + x) = x - \frac{x^2}{2} + \frac{x^3}{3} - \ldots$

with radius of convergence equal to $1$. (A formal verification of the binomial theorem may be found at coinduction.)

Thus, if we define the binomial coefficient $\binom{r}{k}$ by the formula

$\binom{r}{k} \coloneqq \frac{r^{\underline{k}}}{k!},$

then we have

$(y + x)^r = \sum_{k \geq 0} \binom{r}{k} y^{r-k}x^k$

whenever ${|\frac{x}{y}|} \lt 1$, i.e., whenever ${|y|} \gt {|x|}$. More precisely: for any fixed $y \neq 0$, this equation holds for any branch of the logarithm that we use to define $(y+x)^r$ as $\exp(r\log(y+x))$ over the domain $\{x: {|x|} \lt {|y|}\}$.

## Combinatorial interpretation

The special finitary case in which $i, j, n$ are positive integers,

$(i + j)^n = \sum_{0 \leq k \leq n} \binom{n}{k} i^k j^{n-k}$

may be established combinatorially (or in “bijective fashion”) as follows. Start by interpreting $(i + j)^n$ as the number of functions $f: N \to I \sqcup J$ from an $n$-element set, where $I, J$ have cardinalities $i, j$ respectively. By pulling back $f$ along each of the inclusions of $I, J$ into $I \sqcup J$, we get functions $f_I: f^{-1}(I) \to I$, $f_J: f^{-1}(J) \to J$. Here $f^{-1}(I)$ and $f^{-1}(J)$ are complementary subsets of $N$, say of cardinalities $k$ and $n-k$ respectively. (In effect, we are using the fact that the category of finite sets is an extensive category.) Thus, $f$ determines and is uniquely determined by the following data

• A subset $K (= f^{-1}(I))$ of $N$,
• A function $g (= f_I)$ of the form $K \to I$,
• A function $h (= f_J)$ of the form $N-K \to J$

and by counting the number of such triplets $(K, g, h)$, we are led to the right-hand side of the previous displayed equation.

Notice this gives a rigorous proof for the polynomial identity

$(x+y)^n = \sum_{0 \leq k \leq n} \binom{n}{k} x^k y^{n-k}$

since a polynomial in $\mathbb{Z}[x, y]$ is the zero polynomial if it vanishes for all positive integer values substituted for $x$ and $y$.

## Pascal’s triangle

The binomial coefficient polynomials $\binom{x}{k}$ (here $x$ is an indeterminate) satisfy the recurrence

$\Delta \binom{x}{k} \coloneqq \binom{x+1}{k} - \binom{x}{k} = \binom{x}{k-1}, \qquad \binom{x}{0} \coloneqq 1, \binom{0}{k} = 0\; (k \neq 0)$

where the first two equations may also be written as

$\Delta \frac{x^\underline{k}}{k!} = \frac{x^\underline{k-1}}{(k-1)!}, \qquad \frac{x^\underline{0}}{0!} = 1.$

The first equation may be viewed as the discrete analogue of the continuous derivative formula

$\frac{d}{d x} \frac{x^k}{k!} = \frac{x^{k-1}}{(k-1)!}.$

The more familiar form of this recurrence,

$\binom{x+1}{k} = \binom{x}{k} + \binom{x}{k-1},$

may be interpreted combinatorially: a $k$-element subset $K$ of $X + 1$ is either entirely contained in $X$, or is determined by the $(k-1)$-element subset of $X$ that is $K \cap X$.

## References

See also

Last revised on October 15, 2018 at 13:15:35. See the history of this page for a list of all contributions to it.